The Vatican, the last absolute monarchy in Europe

The whole world had its eyes fixed on Rome, anxiously awaiting the announcement in St. Peter's Square of the election of the new Supreme Pontiff, who will assume the papacy after the death of Francis. The white smoke, which was released today, Thursday, a few minutes after 6:00 p.m. local time in Rome. However, the halo of mystery that surrounds it sometimes makes us forget that it is a system that bypasses all the democratic consensuses that prevail in the region.

The black smoke represents the failure of the Conclave to elect a new Supreme Pontiff.

The Vatican, despite centuries of history, has been a recognized state since 1929. In that year, the fascist government of Benito Mussolini signed with the then pope, Pius XI, the Lateran Pacts, recognizing the sovereignty and independence of the Vatican City. At the same time, the unique relations between the Italian state and the Vatican were regulated. At the same time, Pius XI promulgated the Fundamental Law of Vatican City, which serves as the constitution of the only state-religion in the world. In it, along with the respective reforms of John Paul II in 2000 and Francis in 2023, the pope is the cornerstone that directs and orders the state. The Supreme Pontiff is the head of state and holds the executive, legislative and judicial powers. While it is true that there are bodies assigned the legislative function, the Pontifical Commission is composed of a Cardinal President (who also exercises executive powers) and other cardinals, all elected for a five-year term by the Supreme Pontiff. Moreover, papal power is not limited to the mere election of officials, but may also intervene directly in legislative and judicial processes.

Likewise, judicial power is exercised. The Vatican judicial organs are: the Apostolic Penitentiary, the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura and the Tribunal of the Roman Rota. The Penitentiary exercises internal jurisdiction, whether sacramental or non-sacramental, grants absolution of censures, dispensations, commutations, healings, condemnations and other graces. The Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, composed of cardinals, bishops and priests appointed by the pope for five years, is presided over by the cardinal prefect. It rules on civil matters (administrative appeals) or criminal matters, such as matters of sexual violence, provided they have occurred within the walls of the City. Finally, there is the Tribunal of the Roman Rota, which acts as a higher instance at the level of appeal in the Apostolic See in order to protect the rights of the Church. It is responsible for judging the fact of non-consummation of marriage and the existence of a just cause for granting a dispensation.

As we have seen, the pope has full powers to exercise great autonomy. However, we have not mentioned the existence of counter-powers. In the liberal democracies of the world, the principle of “counter-power” exists. This consists of a network of institutions whose function is to act as a counterbalance between the powers of the state and thus achieve a certain balance to avoid excesses and abuses. In parliamentary democracies, this counterweight is exercised by parliament against the executive power, through the approval of laws, budgets or the investiture of the government itself. In the case of the Holy See, these checks and balances are notably weaker and more diffuse.

Francis' papacy has lasted 12 years and 39 days.

The Supreme Pontiff counts on the inviolability of the office; only his personal resignation can expel him from the throne of St. Peter. Within the religious logic, it has its particular meaning. Doctrinally, the pope is the one chosen by the Holy Spirit to exercise as vicar of Christ on Earth with the mission of continuing the evangelizing work begun by St. Peter. Moreover, the Code of Canon Law leaves no room for doubt. Article 331 states: "The bishop of the Roman Church, in whom continues the office given by the Lord to Peter alone, the first of the apostles, and which is to be transmitted to his successors, is head of the episcopal college, Vicar of Christ and pastor of the universal Church on earth. By virtue of his office, he possesses the supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, which he can always exercise freely“; also in article 1404 it says: ”The First See is judged by no one“ and 1405: ”It is the exclusive right of the Roman Pontiff to judge in the causes dealt with in article 1401 (...) spiritual things and violation of ecclesiastical laws". So its only limit is the divine right, but the earthly consequences of promulgating laws that contradict that right are not made explicit either. Since this is an empirical political analysis, we will not count on accountability to God as a valid counterweight.

However, we can count on the bureaucratic state structure of the Holy See as an indirect form of counterweight to the pope. It must be said that this form of control is exercised in all state structures in the world, whether democratic or not. The main ones are the College of Cardinals, the Roman Curia and the Governorate of Vatican City State. The College is in charge of electing the new pope and is the one that meets each time in Conclave; it also serves as a consultative body. The Curia is the central religious administrative body of the Catholic Church (the Secretariat of State is the most relevant), while the Governorate is in charge of civil affairs. The last President of Francis' Governorate was Raffaela Petrini, the first woman to lead the organization in history, who held office from March 1, 2025 until Francis' death in April.

Raffaela Petrini and Francis

Ultimately, the government of the Vatican City State is one that best fits the category of absolute religious monarchy. This is because the figure of the Holy Father wields the political and religious power of a theocracy and lacks the counterpowers of post-French Revolution regimes. If we compare it with another theocracy such as the Islamic Republic of Iran, the supreme leader is elected by an assembly as well, by the Assembly of Experts of the Leadership. With the difference that in Iran the composition of the Assembly is elected by universal suffrage (of course this is censored by the Guardian Council) every 8 years; while in the Vatican the College of Cardinals is elected by the previous pope and has a lifetime character. The legitimacy of the election is not based on the popular support of the Catholic population, but on the will of the Holy Pontiff. The Vatican is thus considered the last absolute monarchy in Europe.